Jung was among the leaders in the development of depth psychology at the beginning of the twentieth century. An early follower of Sigmund Freud, he broke with the founder of psychoanalysis in 1913 and established his own school of analytical psychology.
Jung’s theoretical development originated in his work on the word association test and the theory of feeling toned complexes. As he continued to explore the workings of the unconscious, he postulated the existence of instinctual patterns of cognition and behaviour which he termed ‘archetypes’. Archetypal patterns are, according to Jung, common throughout the human species and constitute an inherited ‘collective unconscious’.
Jung’s approach to psychology was eclectic. He accepted the psychological importance of any phenomenon, even if it conflicted with current thinking in other fields. This attitude led to a deep investigation of the psychological significance of occult phenomena and alchemy, which Jung viewed as expressions of the unconscious that anticipated modern psychology. Later in life, Jung turned increasingly to considerations of the contemporary cultural expressions of psychological forces, writing extensively on what he viewed to be a deepening spiritual crisis in Western civilization.
1 Early work and relationship with Freud
Jung’s father was a Protestant minister and Hebraist, while his paternal grandfather had been a distinguished physician and university reformer. On his mother’s side, Protestant theologians predominated. Given this milieu, Jung was exposed, from an early age, to the main currents of nineteenth-century theology and philosophy, most notably the works of Kant, Schopenhauer and Nietzsche. Jung attended gymnasium in Basel and went on to medical school at the University of Basel. Following graduation, he undertook postgraduate training in psychiatry at the Burghölzli Hospital in Zurich, under the direction of Eugen Bleuler. At about the same time, Jung married Emma Rauschenbach, the daughter of a wealthy German industrialist. They had five children together. From 1906 to about 1913, Jung was deeply involved with Sigmund Freud in the development of psychoanalysis. Following their break, Jung undertook to develop his own theories about the workings of the psyche. The theory of archetypes and the collective unconscious, for which he is best known, prompted Jung to travel widely, after the First World War, in search of evidence to support his understanding of the commonality of psychological functioning throughout the species. In the 1930s, Jung was briefly in contact with figures connected to the National Socialist takeover of German medicine. He soon broke contact, however, and deeply regretted having had any relationship with them.
Jung was surrounded, throughout his adult life, by a large circle of students and admirers. Eventually, this circle developed into the C.G. Jung Institute at Kusnacht, outside Zurich, where Jung had his home.
Although Jung is best known for his theories of the archetypes of the collective unconscious, he first attracted international attention for his work on the word association test. The test was conducted by reading off a list of stimulus words and noting the characteristics of the responses on the part of the subject. Jung significantly refined the measurement of the anomalies in association, such as delayed response, cardiopulmonary function, and galvanic skin response. These refinements allowed for more precise interpretation of test responses. Out of this experimental work, but also under the influence of Pierre Janet in France and Théodore Flournoy in Switzerland, Jung developed the theory of ‘feeling toned complexes’, or affect-laden automatisms within the larger psychic structure of the individual. This theory formed the foundation for all subsequent developments in Jung’s system of psychology.
The refined word association test provided the first experimental evidence supporting Sigmund Freud’s theory of repression. In 1906, Jung wrote to Freud, sending copies of his most recent work on the test, only to learn that Freud already had the papers. Thus began one of the most famous and ill-fated collaborations in modern science.
Although a host of factors contributed to the eventual break between Jung and Freud, several points of theory distinguished the two from the beginning. Freud based his work on a definition of libido that was exclusively sexual in nature, and the conviction that psychopathology derived from infantile sexual conflicts. The task of psychoanalysis was to uncover the sexual etiology of the disorder and thereby dissipate its effect. Jung’s work with the association test, however, had convinced him that libido was not exclusively sexual and that not all complexes could be reduced to a single etiologic source.
Other points of theory further separated the two. Based on work done in his doctoral dissertation on a case of somnambulism or mediumship, Jung argued that at least some of the workings of the unconscious were motivated by the anticipated development of the individual. This teleological view of the unconscious prompted Jung to question the role of repression, which for Freud was the fundamental mechanism of psychodynamics, in the psychic economy. For Jung, projection of psychic contents from the unconscious, without prior repression, took on increasing significance. Finally, based on his extensive experience with dementia praecox (schizophrenia) at the Burghölzli hospital, Jung concluded that there were what he termed ‘psychological dominants’ at work in all individuals, and that these dominants were evolutionary in origin, and relatively consistent throughout the species. Although Freud believed that the Oedipus complex was common throughout humanity, he resisted the notion that there could be other complexes with equal status.
2 The theory of archetypes and personality theory
Following the break with Freud in 1913, Jung went into a period of self-analysis and theory building. At this time, Jung developed his method of active imagination which used the images presented in dreams and waking reveries to explore the individual psyche. Out of this work with the imagination he developed his characteristic vocabulary for the structure of the psyche, and his more refined understanding of the psychological dominants, now referred to as ‘archetypes’. The consciously presented personality was referred to as the ‘persona’, from the mask worn by actors in the ancient Greek theatre. Those parts of the personality that were not allowed into conscious presentation formed the individual’s ‘shadow’.
In addition to persona and shadow, Jung posited the existence of images of the counter-sexual in both men and women. These he referred to as ‘anima’ and ‘animus’, respectively. The images of the counter-sexual formed a bridge between the individual unconscious and the ‘collective unconscious’ which contained the archetypes. The term collective unconscious refers to the inherited instinctual substrate of human psychological functioning.
The theory of archetypes has been the subject of various interpretations, and Jung was not always precise in his application of the term to a psychological event. One common misconception, however, is that Jung thought of the archetypes in purely Platonic terms, as existing in some transcendent realm of ideas. Much of the confusion arises from a failure to recognize Jung’s distinction between archetypes and archetypal images. Although there are places where Jung appears to discuss the archetypes in transcendental terms, perhaps informed by his extensive reading of Kant, his most consistent position is that the archetypes are biologically inherited, instinctual patterns of cognition and behaviour. It is this level of shared cognitive and behavioural patterns that constitutes the collective unconscious.
‘Archetypal images’, on the other hand, are more or less conscious representations of the archetypal or instinctual structures. Thus, instinctual seeking of the breast in the new-born infant demonstrates an archetypal form of behaviour associated with the mother. The instinctual relationship to the mother, however, also drives the formation of individual fantasies and images representative of the infant’s experience of the mother, and the culture at large contributes to the further elaboration of these fantasies by means of myths, rituals, fairy tales and other forms of collective representation associated with the mother.
Jung was also at work on a theory of personality or ‘psychological types’. Jung posited two essential orientations toward the world, introversion and extroversion, to which were added the functions of thinking, feeling, intuiting and sensing. In essence, the extrovert focuses on the outside world for information and inspiration, while the introvert focuses on interior states. By the same token, the functions are paired in such a way that one operates consciously while the other works unconsciously. Thus a thinking type will have an unconscious feeling function that attaches itself to contents of the unconscious.
3 Occultism, alchemy and projection
Jung had a lifelong interest in occultism and esoteric traditions. He was by no means alone in this interest, as research on spiritualism was widespread at the time. Jung and Freud both met with William James during a trip to the USA in 1909, and James came away deeply impressed by Jung, in part, no doubt because of their shared interest in spiritualism. For his part, Jung considered James to be a profound influence on his development.
Interest in how causally unrelated events could be meaningfully connected, as when a series of numbers seem to repeat themselves several times during a single day, led Jung to develop his theory of synchronicity. As with many of Jung’s theories, it is difficult to distinguish empirical research from the formulation of a theory of psychological functioning. Thus, on its surface, the theory of synchronicity attempts to provide statistical measures of some paranormal phenomena. By and large, however, these measures are not significant. On the other hand, the role of projection in the formation of meaningful associations is clearly demonstrated. This understanding of the primacy of projection in psychic functioning laid the foundation for the development of such standard projective tests as the Rorschach and the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT).
Jung’s long-standing fascination with esoteric traditions, particularly Gnosticism (see Gnosticism), led him into an extensive study of alchemy. Alchemy was not, on Jung’s reading, a precursor to modern natural science. Rather, it was essentially a Western form of psychological and spiritual discipline resembling the great meditative traditions of India and East Asia. The operations of the alchemists in their work and writings were manifestations of psychic projection, and the search for a means to transform base metals into gold was a spiritual quest for self-perfection (see Alchemy).
The investigation of projection eventually led Jung to consider the epistemological implications of his system of psychology. To the extent that projection from the unconscious informed his interpretation of cognitive phenomena, it became increasingly difficult to maintain a purely empirical view of those phenomena. In the end, Jung spoke of a ‘psychoid world’ where the boundaries between psychic events and objective reality break down.
3 Occultism, alchemy and projection
Jung had a lifelong interest in occultism and esoteric traditions. He was by no means alone in this interest, as research on spiritualism was widespread at the time. Jung and Freud both met with William James during a trip to the USA in 1909, and James came away deeply impressed by Jung, in part, no doubt because of their shared interest in spiritualism. For his part, Jung considered James to be a profound influence on his development.
Interest in how causally unrelated events could be meaningfully connected, as when a series of numbers seem to repeat themselves several times during a single day, led Jung to develop his theory of synchronicity. As with many of Jung’s theories, it is difficult to distinguish empirical research from the formulation of a theory of psychological functioning. Thus, on its surface, the theory of synchronicity attempts to provide statistical measures of some paranormal phenomena. By and large, however, these measures are not significant. On the other hand, the role of projection in the formation of meaningful associations is clearly demonstrated. This understanding of the primacy of projection in psychic functioning laid the foundation for the development of such standard projective tests as the Rorschach and the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT).
Jung’s long-standing fascination with esoteric traditions, particularly Gnosticism (see Gnosticism), led him into an extensive study of alchemy. Alchemy was not, on Jung’s reading, a precursor to modern natural science. Rather, it was essentially a Western form of psychological and spiritual discipline resembling the great meditative traditions of India and East Asia. The operations of the alchemists in their work and writings were manifestations of psychic projection, and the search for a means to transform base metals into gold was a spiritual quest for self-perfection (see Alchemy).
The investigation of projection eventually led Jung to consider the epistemological implications of his system of psychology. To the extent that projection from the unconscious informed his interpretation of cognitive phenomena, it became increasingly difficult to maintain a purely empirical view of those phenomena. In the end, Jung spoke of a ‘psychoid world’ where the boundaries between psychic events and objective reality break down.
4 The critique of culture
While implicit in some aspects of his early work, Jung’s late work (1939–61) focused increasingly on what he saw as a crisis in Western civilization. In many respects, Jung’s critique resembles those of Husserl and Heidegger, although it focuses more on issues of spiritual collapse and renewal. Additionally, Jung thought that it was possible to assume a therapeutic stance in relation to the cultural crisis.
Jung focused his critique of culture, to a substantial degree, on the historical role of Christianity. He approached this problem from within the frame of his psychological theories, however, rather than from either a historical or theological standpoint. This meant that the body of historical and textual materials that make up the Christian tradition were treated, by Jung, much as he would treat the dreams and fantasies of a patient. Jung viewed the tradition as increasingly maladaptive, and therefore in need of therapy. At the same time, he viewed such doctrinal moves as the proclamation of the bodily assumption of the Virgin as attempts to overcome maladaptive aspects of dogmatic Christianity by incorporating previously denigrated aspects of human experience such as the female body.
Jung exercised an influence on the practice of psychotherapy and on fields ranging from literature to industrial psychology that far exceeds what is usually recognized. The circumstances surrounding his break with Freud, as well as his brief association with the Nazis, did considerable damage to his reputation. An idiosyncratic vocabulary added to his image as an undisciplined thinker. Nevertheless, his system of psychology, beginning as it does with the word association test, and emphasizing the biological foundations of cognition and behaviour, thereby anticipating more recent developments in cognitive theory and evolutionary psychology, rests on far stronger empirical foundations than most other depth psychologies.
